By Dr Ruwan M Jayatunge M.D., Lanka Daily News, May 30, 2015
‘Buddhism helps man to find an answer to the question of his
existence, an answer which is essentially the same as that given in the
Judeo-Christian tradition, and yet which does not contradict the
rationality, realism, and independence which are modern man’s precious
achievements. Paradoxically, Eastern religious thought turns out to be
more congenial to Western rational thought than does Western religious
thought itself’
– Erich Fromm
Colombo, Sri Lanka -- The social psychologist
and humanistic philosopher, Eric Fromm was vastly influenced by Freud
and Karl Heinrich Marx. He became a follower of Neoanalytic tradition.
In later years, Fromm started reading Zen Buddhism in depth. He saw
Buddhism as a philosophical-anthropological system based on observation
of facts and their rational explanation.
(Buddhism
and the Mode of Having vs. Being – Erick Fromm 1975). Fromm believed
that Buddhism is a completely rational system which demands no
intellectual sacrifice.
Fromm’s interest towards Buddhism was obvious. Among the Western
scholars, Caroline A F Rhys Davids was one of the pioneers to
conceptualize canonical Buddhist writings in terms of psychology.
Professor William James was making some comparisons between the
consciousness and thought process that was described in the Western
Psychology and what the Buddha had taught two millenniums ago. Many
former members of the Freud’s Psychoanalytic society were reading
Buddhist philosophy and making evaluations. By this time Carl Jung had
highlighted the mind analysis in Buddhism. Therefore Fromm’s interest
towards Buddhism was not an abrupt event.
In his 1950 work Psychoanalysis and Religion, Eric Fromm profoundly
analyzed Buddhist Philosophy. He made a distinction between the
authoritarian and humanistic religions and interpreted Buddhism as an
antiauthoritarian religion that provides for personal validation and
growth.As Fromm viewed, in the Buddhist philosophy there is no surrender to a
power transcending figure and as a virtue; obedience does not play a key
role. Buddhism is centered around man and his strength. Man must
develop his power of reason in order to understand himself, his
relationship to his fellow men and his position in the universe. Fromm
further says that a humanistic religion like Buddhism is geared to
achieve the greatest strength, not the greatest powerlessness; virtue is
self-realization, not obedience.
Like Carl Rogers, Fromm believed man’s ability for self growth. He
refused to believe the Freudian concept that explains man is geared by
innate primary destructive forces of libido. Fromm realized that unlike
in the Viennese Victorian society sexual repression plays no major
part in the Contemporary Society. Fromm once stated that in
the modern society people mostly repress their true thoughts and
feelings rather than the sexual urges.
Buddhism and psychoanalysis
The psychoanalytical components in Buddhism have been emphasized by
many scholars like Martin Wicramasinghe D. Lit, Laurence W. Christensen,
etc. The Buddhist Jathaka stories from the Khuddaka Nikaya contain 550
stories and Rev Buddhaghosa, translated most of the Jathaka stories into
Pali about 430 A.D. In most of these Buddhist Jathaka stories a
powerful psychoanalytical fraction can be detected.
Eric Fromm saw a larger perimeter in psychoanalysis and did not limit
it to neuroses. Fromm criticized Freud’s patriarchal attitude as
limiting the development of psychoanalysis as a science (Maccoby 1994).
Eric Fromm suggests that Zen Buddhism has a prolific influence on theory
and technique of psychoanalysis.
“…[W]hat can be said with more certainty is that the knowledge of
Zen, and a concern with it, can have a most fertile and clarifying
influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. Zen, different
as it is in its method from psychoanalysis, can sharpen the focus, throw
new light on the nature of insight, and heighten the sense of what it
is to see, what it is to be creative, what it is to overcome the
affective contaminations and false intellectualizations which are the
necessary results of experience based on the subject-object split” (Zen
Buddhism and Psychoanalysis-Eric Fromm
p. 140).
The psychoanalytical module in Buddhism is very much evident.
Buddhism provides psychological methods of analyzing human experience
and inquiring into the potential and hidden capacities of the human
mind. According to Buddhism mind precedes its objects. They are
mind-governed and mind-made. The verse 37 of the Dhammapada explains
the dynamics of human mind thus: The mind is capable of travelling vast
distances – up or down, north or south, east or west – in any direction.
It can travel to the past or the future.
Gerald Virtbauer of the University of Vienna makes comparisons between the Buddhism and the Western Psychology.
The first approach is to present and explore parts of Buddhist
teachings as a psychology. As many teachers of different Buddhist
traditions point out, Buddhism is not primarily a religion based on
faith and worship, but a system, or an art to inquire into the human
mind. (Buddhism as a Psychological System: Three Approaches-Gerald
Virtbauer 2008)
Search for meaning
In 1959, Eric Fromm co authored an incomparable book titled Zen
Buddhism and Psychoanalysis with D. T. Suzuki and Richard de Martino.
In this book Fromm postulates distinct relationship between the Western
psychoanalyses and Zen Buddhism. Eric Fromm argued that the human being
needs to find an answer to his existence and this urge to search for
meaning differs human from other animals. In addition he highlights
that human has an inner dynamism that directed towards personal
growth. He viewed that living is a process that starts at birth and
does not end at death. Fromm states that most of the people die before
they are fully born. The notion of fully born according to Fromm is
becoming fully functional as a human being.
Eric Fromm in his book, Escape from Freedom asks series of questions that were originally based on Talmud.
1) If I am not for myself, who will be for me?
2) If I am for myself only, what am I?
3) If not now, when?
These types of questions were evident in the Buddhist Philosophy.
Once when the lord Buddha was delivering a sermon, a young girl showed
up. Then the Buddha asked a series of questions from her.
1) Where do you come from?
She said I don’t know venerable sir, and then the Buddha asked
2) Where do you go?
She said I don’t know.
3) Do you know?
The girl replied – “Yes”
Finally the Buddha asked
4) Don’t you know?
She said ‘No’
It was an enigmatic type of answers, but the girl was referring to
her previous existence when the Buddha asked where do you come from? She
did not know from where she came to the present existence. When she was
asked where do you go? She replied I don’t know, because she does not
know where she would go after her death. When the Buddha asked do you
know? She said yes because she knew that she was a mortal, and she would
certainly die one day. When she was asked don’t you know? Her reply
was no. Because, she did not know when she would be dead.
The search for meaning has become the main theme of religion and
philosophy. The meaning of life constitutes a philosophical question
concerning the purpose and significance of life or existence in general.
The Buddha explained that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire that suffering ceases when desire ceases.
Human suffering
The Buddhist Philosophy deeply explains the causes of human suffering
and path for freedom. Therefore Buddhism is not based on pessimism. It
is based on realistic principles. The mundane understanding of suffering
is related to bearing of pain, inconvenience, and distress that
connected with hopelessness. According to the Buddha the word suffering
has a deep existential meaning. It is a universal explanation of the
true human condition.
To explain suffering, the Buddha used the term ‘Dukkha’, which has a
universal meaning. Many Western Psychologists misinterpreted the word
‘Dukkha’ (universal suffering), and they viewed it as an agonizing human
condition. This was due to the mistranslation done by the French
Philosopher Anatole France in the late Centaury. Anatole France
translated the word ‘Dukkha’ into French as souffrance and then into
English as suffering. Ever since many Western scholars grasped the
concept of ‘Dukkha’ incorrectly. Therefore many thought Dukkha
symbolizes the dark side of human existence filled with pessimism and
despair.
However Eric Fromm was able to grasp the deep philosophical notion of
universal suffering or ‘Dukkha, and he saw human suffering in personal
lives, in the society and in the civilization.
In 1960, Fromm wrote: “Psychoanalysis is a characteristic expression
of Western man’s spiritual crisis, and an attempt to find a
solution”(Fromm et al., 1960, p. 80). Although Freud stated that
Psychoanalysis is a method of medical treatment for those who suffer
from neurosis (Five Lectures delivered by 1909 by Dr. Sigmund Freud at
the Clark University) Fromm did not want to limit psychoanalysis to the
neurotic patients. Unlike Sigmund Freud, Fromm believed in experience
rather than interpretation.
Fromm’s psychoanalytic technique was essentially different from
Freud’s psychic archeology. Fromm attempted to create what he called a
more ‘humanistic’ face-to-face encounter. He believed the analyst must
understand the patient by empathy as well as intellect, with the heart
as well as the head. (Maccoby 1994).
Freud assumed that hysterical patients suffer from reminiscences.
Their symptoms are the remnants and the memory symbols of certain
traumatic experiences. When Freud went into individual level, Fromm
applied psychoanalytic theory to social and cultural problems.
Eric
Fromm saw the human suffering in the individual level as well as within
the society. He saw the collective suffering. Fromm was on the view that
psychological problems often result when an individual feels isolated
from society. Describing individual suffering Fromm wrote:
“The common suffering is the alienation from oneself, from one’s
fellow man, and from nature; the awareness that life runs out of one’s
hand like sand, and that one will die without having lived; that one
lives in the midst of plenty and yet is joyless” (Zen Buddhism and
Psychoanalysis- E. Fromm et al. pp. 85-86).
Fromm Further says that one of the worst forms of mental suffering is
boredom, not knowing what to do with oneself and one’s life. Even if
man had no monetary or any other reward, he would be eager to spend his
energy in some meaningful way because he could not stand the boredom
which inactivity produces.
Fromm saw extensive suffering in the society that was resulted from
centuries old socio economic systems and loss of meaning. Fromm’s book
The Sane Society looks in to the dilemmas caused by the
industrialization. Many Psychologists believe that Fromm’s publication
The Sane Society was a respond to Freud’s Civilization and its
Discontents. In the Sane Society Fromm looked in to a new form of human
suffering and man’s escape into over conformity and the danger of
robotism in the modern industrial society.
In his book, Escape from Freedom, Fromm describes how freedom can be
frightening and therefore, many people run from freedom. For average men
freedom is not an emancipation it is a burden. Fromm further postulates
that man is the only animal for whom his own existence is a problem
which he has to solve.
Know thyself
Eric Fromm strongly believed that ‘Know thyself’ is one of the
fundamental commands that aim at human strength and happiness. Fromm’s
notion ‘Know thyself’ was stated by the Buddha over 2,600 years ago. In
the story of Bhaddawaggiya, Princes reveals the importance of knowing
thyself.
The Bhaddawaggiya Princes where looking for a woman who stole their
valuable possessions. When they met the Buddha the princes asked,
“Venerable Sir, did you see a woman? The Buddha answered, “What is more
important whether look for a woman or to look for thy self? (means know
thy self). The princes replied that more important is to know thy self.
Knowing thyself or achieving self realization is one of the virtues
of Buddhism. The young apprentice, Angulimala was ill-advised by his
teacher and he became an addictive killer. He killed nearly 999, men
and collected the fingers of his victims. When he saw the Buddha he
thought that he could have his next victim. Angulimala ordered the
Buddha to stop. The Buddha replied, “ I have already stopped therefore
you should stop too.” The Buddha meant that he does not harm anyone and
he was able to stop the cycle of Sansara or the continuous flow of
birth, life , death and reincarnation. This phrase created a cognitive
revolution in Angulimala. Angulimala had a self-realization that led
to a dramatic transformation his personality. He renounced violence.
Human freedom
The idea of freedom was unique to Fromm. He assumed that freedom is
the central characteristic of human nature. According to Fromm often
people escape from freedom. He described three ways in which people
escape from freedom:
1. Authoritarianism (either submitting power to others becoming
passive and compliant or becoming an authority by applying structure to
others)
2. Destructiveness.
3. Automaton conformity.
In his 1968 book, The Revolution of Hope, Fromm writes that man has
to protect himself not only against the danger of losing his life but
also against the danger of losing his mind.
Michael Maccoby in his 1994 article, The Two Voices of Erich Fromm:
the Prophetic and the Analytic points out that Fromm’s model of the
healthy individual who transcends and transforms society is the
‘productive character,’ the individuated person who loves and creates.
Unlike his other character types – receptive, hoarding, exploitative and
marketing – The productive character lacks clinical or historical
grounding. It is a questionable ideal. (Maccoby 1994).
Eric Fromm believed that human is capable of determining his freedom.
He saw Zen Buddhism as a way from bondage to freedom. In his own words
Fromm explains:
“Zen Buddhism is the art of seeing into the nature of
one’s being; it is a way from bondage to freedom; it liberates our
natural energies; … and it impels us to express our faculty for
happiness and love (p. 115).
Eric Fromm introduced five basic needs and the fifth need he called
-A Frame of Orientation – The need for a stable and consistent way of
perceiving the world and understanding its events. The Buddha explained
that the virtuous man perceives the world and its events in realistic
manner. He achieves self realization the highest plane in the human
intellectual structure.
The Ven. Dr. Walpola Rahula explains this condition more gracefully in his book, What the Buddha Taught.
He who has realized Truth, Nirvana, is the happiest being in the
world. He is free from all ‘complexes’ and obsessions, the worries and
troubles that torment others. His mental health is perfect. He does not
repent the past, nor does he brood over the future. He lives fully in
the present. Therefore he appreciates and enjoys things in the purest
sense without self-projections. He is joyful, exultant, enjoying the
pure life, his faculties pleased, free from anxiety, serene and
peaceful.
Eric Fromm saw humanistic religion such as Buddhism could help people
achieve self-fulfillment and understanding. Fromm concluded that the
Buddhism could see man realistically and objectively, having nobody but
the ‘awakened’ ones to guide him, and being able to he guided because
each man has within himself the capacity to awake and be enlightened.
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